Romantic–with a Capitol 'R'–Poetry

The Call for Paper I found that most interested me was titled “Romantic Women and Their Books:” Studies in Romanticism special issue. The prompt wants papers addressing the recent movement of feminist scholars in “recovering the neglected writing of Romantic-era women” (Stauffer). The prompt asks modern scholars to explain “how our understanding of these women and their writing might be augmented” (Stauffer). Beyond looking at the writing of female authors, the prompt asks for examples of women in the print industry such as how women’s books were published and marketed in a male dominated occupation.

This Call for Papers fits into my final essay because I want to focus on Mary Wollstonecraft and the impact of her influence while she was writing compared to how modern audiences view her writing. Mary Wollstonecraft was published during the early Romanticism era, so the prompt is looking for the time period her works represent. I’m interested in Mary Wollstonecraft because modern scholars have credited her as the beginning of the feminist movement, but feminism wasn’t a movement until the Victorian era, long after the death of Wollstonecraft. As for publication history, Wollstonecraft was originally published anonymously, but eventually her name was added to her works. I plan to look at her letters to Imlay for evidence of her forward thinking through the class system and feminist views.

Stauffer, Andrew. “Cfp: Call for Papers.” Cfp | Call for Papers, Michael Levy and Andrew Stauffer, 27 Jan. 2020, call-for-papers.sas.upenn.edu/cfp/2020/01/27/romantic-women-and-their-books-studies-in-romanticism-special-issue.

While reading Phillis Wheatley, I became interested in her poem “To The King’s Most Excellent Majesty” and the historical context surrounding its publication. The poem was written in 1768, but it wasn’t published until 1773 (90). These dates are near the beginning of the American Revolution. At this time, Wheatley was living in Boston, and the relationship between the British and Boston specifically was rocky at best. Wheatley wrote the poem when colonists and the British were still trying to salvage their relationship, but she published it the same year as one of the most significant events to lead to the American Revolution: The Boston Tea Party.

Wheatley choosing to publish a poem praising the king of England after an event that disrespected his tradesmanship was a courageous move as an African female writer. She writes, “And all with love and readiness obey,” talking about the king’s subjects as loyal, but many colonists were rebelling against the crown because of the unfair taxes and laws (line 5). In the next stanza, she asks how his subjects should reward him for his kindness, though the colonists are not pleased with his ruling (line 6).

Wheatley writes as if the colonists were happy with King George, and that could be because her masters were loyalists. If Wheatley lived with a family loyal to the king, it would follow that she would write a poem about loyalty to the king; however, the time of publication implies that Wheatley knows the colonists have reason to be upset. She ends the poem by focusing on how King George should respond to his subjects saying, “A monarch’s smile can set his subjects free” (line 15)! If Wheatley is publishing this in response to The Boston Tea Party, she is suggesting King George should not punish the colonists for their disrespect. Wheatley is brave for publishing under her own name, publishing during a time of unrest between the colonists and the British, and publishing a poem with advice to the king of England.

I’m thinking about possible essay topics and I’m leaning towards Mary Wollstonecraft and her impact on literature. I have some prior knowledge of Wollstonecraft, but I’m looking forward to reading her works in class. With Wollstonecraft, I would like to compare other female writers we have been talking about like Barbauld, More, and Smith.

Wollstonecraft wrote during the transition period from Romantic to Regency literature. She was an advocate for women’s rights, and wrote for the advancement of education for women. As a woman currently seeking advanced education, I’m interested in how far we have advanced and how much further we need to advance.

I don’t know exactly what I’ll be looking for through Wollstonecraft’s works, but I hope to solidify my idea soon.

Hannah More’s “The Hackney Coachman: Or, The Way to Get a Good Fare,” is a lively poem compared to what we have been reading. The coachman takes pride in his work and wants to give his riders an enjoyable trip. He prides himself on being able to work saying, “To work all the week I am able and willing, / I never get drunk, and I waste not a shilling” (More 7-8). The coachman does exactly what he should to stay out of trouble and make money for his family. More writes a character worth emulating in real life because of his work ethic. Instead of warning her readers how not to act, More gives them an example of a man one should attempt to be like.

More comments on the better parts of the city rather than expressing any love for the country. The coachman is only one good aspect of the city, More focusing on the city is a departure from our other poets who loved the country and nature. Her use of the city to warn her readers becomes clear through the coachman’s words. The coachman works in the city filled with corrupt people, yet he goes to church every chance he can and avoids vices such as drinking and swearing (20,23, & 30). More instructs her audience to follow the advice of the coachman and be a better person, while also hinting at leaving the city sometimes to get away from the bad habits. The coachman is a good man and More wants her readers to know what a good man does to become a good man. More’s focus on the city is not a complete departure from the country, but it implies that being in the city often is not as great as it sounds.

While reading John Clare’s “Written in a Thunder Storm July 15^th, 1841,” I didn’t realize it was written before he escaped the asylum. I hadn’t looked at the footnote for the title, but once I did and I reread the poem, it changed my perspective. At first I thought the poem was strictly a nature poem describing someone watching a storm. He writes lines like “the thunders rattling peal / Rolls like a vast volcano in the sky,” demonstrating the power the storm has as equal to the unstoppable force of a volcano (Clare lines 1-2). Clare is in awe of what the storm can do, and wants to share his thoughts with his readers. Clare connects with the storm because he wants to feel the power of the storm and be exposed to it by stretching his hands toward the sky while it rains (25).

            Reading this poem again and looking beyond a nature reading, I realized this poem has elements of escape and freedom. Clare wants to harness the power of the storm to gain his freedom. In the line “Till I can feel that nature is my throne,” Clare implies that gaining his freedom is like controlling the power of nature (12). Watching the storm outside the window of his asylum room, encourages Clare that escape is possible if only he can be as powerful as the storm. Throughout the poem, the motivation to escape builds and builds, but the last line ends in an ellipsis suggesting that the end is not the end. Leaving the poem without an ending and knowing Clare escaped from the asylum a few days after writing this poem, shows how Clare makes the decision to escape at the end of the poem without revealing his plans directly. The subtle hints at escaping demonstrate that although he was in an asylum, Clare was of a clear mind to know how to attain his freedom.

Focusing on Wordsworth, I’ve found that hi poetry is different because he thinks differently than other writers. Some writers seem to hide behind the objectivity of their works because they want to sell to more consumers; however, Wordsworth uses subjectivity to make himself the center of attention. His prelude is based upon his life, written by himself, and is expected to be read as true events, though as readers we would not know the difference. In his article, Balfour points out that Wordsworth breaks the conventions of prophecy by having himself be “the voice” and “the echo” that reinforces the prophecy (Balfour 119). He describes himself as “being chosen as a vehicle of the divine word” (Balfour 118). Describing himself as the chosen one elevates his poetry to his readers because his imagined relationship with God influences the people of the church to read his works.

Writing his poetry about himself makes it less connected to his audience, but it serves the purpose of prophecy by warning others of the mistakes of his past, so they won’t make the same mistakes in their future. Though he breaks the conventions, the elements of prophecy still there fulfill the goal of prophecy. If Wordsworth had made this poem objective, I don’t think it would have been as successful. Knowing that he lived through these events makes the poetry more realistic. By adding the elements of prophecy that coincide with the Christian tradition of a “prediction of the future,” Wordsworth gains a Christian audience that want to read about prophecy (Balfour 125). Wordsworth’s audience is not limited by his subjectivity once the Christian elements are recognized.

I returned to Wordsworth’s preface to Lyrical Ballads because he explains poetry in a unique way. He says, “Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings,” and though I understand what he means I don’t know if this is necessarily true (340). Wordsworth implies that the poet is trying to express an overwhelming amount of feeling within poetry. This idea seems to match his own poetry and the poetry of his friend Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The poem “Michael” by Wordsworth describes the emotional heartbreak of losing a son, while Coleridge’s “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” describes living with guilt from a young age until death. Both poems rely on the emotions brought forth while reading about someone else’s suffering.

With this in mind, is all poetry basically therapy for the writer? Do poets write only for this reason? I don’t agree with Wordsworth’s theory when thinking about modern poetry, but my experience with Romantic poetry is limited and emotion may be a trait of that genre. Poetry does seem to be an escape for the reader when thinking about poems that describe fantastical elements, so it would follow that it works as an escape for the poet. The relationship between the poet and the reader is interesting because the only feedback a poet receives is in total sales of their work. If this poetry is meant to be an overflow of emotions, does the poet deserve more than profit for opening their hearts to the world?

I found Wordsworth’s preface to Lyrical Ballads an interesting piece because he describes the current poetry style as a contract between the author and reader, suggesting that the reader is expecting to see certain aspects of poetry and the author is meant to fulfill this agreement. Contradictory to these ideas, Wordsworth claims his poetry differs from that of his contemporaries. He explains he is interested “in what manner language and the human mind act and re-act,” so he purposefully writes in a way that opposes most of the poetic norms other poets are following (334). Further, he describes that each of his changes “has a purpose,” and the differences do not lessen the meaning of the work (335). I imagine that for Wordsworth to write this at the turn of the century meant he wanted to experiment with language in a way that hadn’t been done and matched the enthusiasm of the new century. Throughout the work, Wordsworth proposes the reader wishes “to be pleased in that particular way in which we have been accustomed to be pleased,” and the responsibility of the writer is to challenge that feeling of security in the reader (340).

In his poem “Michael,” Wordsworth writes in prose, yet structures the poem in a poetic form. This contrast of form and language may have confused readers of the nineteenth century at first, but the meaning of the poem is not hard to find. “Michael” reads like any other poem and depicts a strong story about a family. The advantage of prose is the poem reads easier. But if the poem is in prose does that make it a poem? Though his changes may have been radical for nineteenth century readers, Wordsworth’s poetry is as valid as his contemporaries who wrote in rhyme.

Reading Collett’s article about Godwin’s utopian theory helped me to understand his novel better. By this I mean I understand why he created an immortal character, but comparing his theory with the novel leaves some questions. If reaching immortality somehow creates the perfect human, why does Reginald suffer from the same mistakes he made in his mortal life? How can immortality be the key to perfection? Godwin’s utopian theory seems out there when thinking about his Romanticism background. He believes humanity will reach a point where they no longer have to reproduce, but wouldn’t keeping the same people in a society limit that society? Romantics thought children represented “the possibility of social change” because new minds would have new ideas to share with the world (Collett 329). A “utopia” based on the same people would create a stagnant society. Though people can change, how long would it take immortals to change their habits to better the society?

Parts of Godwin’s theory do make sense to me and would have an impact on the society if people thought in the way he wanted. One point Collette presents is Godwin’s thoughts on society focuses locally rather than globally when making decisions for children. Godwin believed society viewed being “for the child” as being “’for’ a specific child…one’s own child, at the expense of all other children” (329). What Godwin establishes is the mentality that every parent is only looking out for their own child, instead of making decisions to help all children. Godwin is specifically referencing the government and how they make laws that help their own family. I like the point Godwin is making here because if the government made decisions to help the many instead of the few the world would be better off. I understand they can’t please everyone, but making an effort to help all children is the first step to the better society Godwin imagines.

In the last section of Godwin’s St. Leon, prophecy is evident through Reginald’s thoughts as he reaches the end of his story. Section four is where Reginald understands the cost of immortality is losing the one’s you love. He celebrates that he is young again through the power of the elixir, but he realizes he is alone, and has no one to share his youth. He visits his daughters and finds them grown and well taken car of without him. Once the thought of being alone settles in, Reginald reflects on his gift saying, “I possessed the gift of immortal life; but I looked on myself as a monster that did not deserve to exist” (355). Visiting his daughters, as a man they did not recognize, leaves Reginald feeling empty and regretful of taking the elixir. His response to the gift he risked his family for shows how his thoughts on life have changed since taking the elixir. Reginald now understands that living with someone you love is better than living forever alone.

This argument is strengthened by his reunion with his son Charles, who does not recognize his father and believes him to be another young Frenchman. When they have a falling out, caused again by the magic of the elixir, Reginald leaves Charles to allow him happiness. One moment where Reginald understands the true cost of the elixir happens when he says, “It was my fate since the visit of the stranger of the lake of Constance, to rejoice for moments and to lament for years” (425). After leaving his children to live their lives without him, Reginald is left with only the memory of them, and is unable to reunite with them as their father. For the rest of his immortal life, Reginald is cursed to be a stranger to everyone. Prophecy becomes the most evident in section four because Reginald does not comprehend what he is giving up for the chance to live forever. By the end of the novel, he recognizes that the true meaning of living is sharing it with those you love.